Chapter 1

• 1.1 Front vowels as coronals. 4
• 1.2 [consonantal] as a daughter of the Root node. 5
• 1.3 The segmental inventory of Modern Standard Japanese. 8
• 1.4 Participation of palatalized segment / sy / in HVD. 10
• 1.5 Consonantal allophony in Standard Modern Japanese. 11
• 1.6 Geometric representations of the allophonic variations. 13

Chapter 2

• 2.1 A traditional formulation of the rule of HVD. 20
• 2.2 Gradient vowel devoicing in the Gestural Score framework. 23
• 2.3 Three strategies for achieving overlap of vowel voicing gestures by surrounding devoicing gestures. 24
• 2.4 Waveforms and spectrograms for voiced and devoiced 1st vowel of tsuki ‘moon’, participant HK. 31
• 2.5 Alternate devoicing of vowels at fixed SR, 1st vowel devoiced (participant ANa). 35
• 2.6 Alternate devoicing of vowels at fixed SR, 2nd vowel devoiced (participant ANa). 36
• 2.7 Waveform and spectrogram for voiced 1st vowel of tsuki ‘moon’, participant TO. 38
• 2.8 Waveform and spectrogram for devoiced 1st vowel of tsuki ‘moon’, participant TO. 38
• 2.9 High Vowel Devoicing and Obstruentization in Uyghur. 42
• 2.10 Waveform, zero crossings trace, and spectrogram for production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa. 44
• 2.11 Production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa showing heavy frication accompanying devoiced 2nd vowel. 46
• 2.12 Production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa showing decreasing frication accompanying lightly voiced 2nd vowel. 47
• 2.13 Production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa showing frication accompanying heavily voiced 2nd vowel. 48
• 2.14 Production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa showing lower frication on voiced 1st vowel. 50
• 2.15 Production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa showing heavy frication on heavily voiced 2nd vowel. 51
• 2.16 Production of chichi ‘father’ by participant CS showing no full closure of the medial stop. 52
• 2.17 Geometric representation of a voiced vowel. 56
• 2.18 Geometric representation of a whispered vowel. 57
• 2.19 Geometric representation of a fricativized vowel. 59
• 2.20 Geometric representation of a devoiced vowel. 61
• 2.21 Geometric representation of a deleted vowel, with Compensatory Lengthening. 63
• 2.22 Production of kiki ‘anxiety’ by participant ANa showing deletion of the vowel timing slot. 63

Chapter 3

• 3.1 Possible accent locations for lexical items in the Standard dialect. 68
• 3.2 Tone representation in the P&B framework; 1st lexical item unaccented. 70
• 3.3 Representative production of kuchi ‘mouth’ sentence, participant HK. 72
• 3.4 Tone representation in the P&B framework; 1st lexical item accented on the 1st mora. 73
• 3.5 Representative production of kichi sentence, participant HK. 74
• 3.6 Tone representation in the P&B framework; 1st lexical item accented on the 2nd mora. 75
• 3.7 Representative production of kishi sentence, participant HK. 76
• 3.8 Pitch trace of a production containing a voiced accented vowel. 79
• 3.9 Pitch trace of a production containing a devoiced accented vowel. 80
• 3.10 Production of kichi sentence with voiced accented 2nd vowel, participant HK. 81
• 3.11 Production of kichi sentence showing accent shift to 1st mora, participant HK. 82

Chapter 4

• 4.1 Sample screen from the presentation program. 92
• 4.2 Token duration measurement criteria; shown is kiki to ‘nervousness and’. 96
• 4.3 Second vowel of token tsuchi ‘dirt’ by participant ANa , before and after low-pass filtering at 1kHz. 97
• 4.4 Filtered waveform of 2nd vowel of token kuki ‘stem’ by participant YU showing ‘trailing voice’. 98

Chapter 5

• 5.1 Distribution plot of token duration vs. sr; all data points (n = 1800). 103
• 5.2 Histogram for token duration, slow SR; n = 600 (all data points). 104
• 5.3 Histogram for token duration, normal SR; n = 600 (all data points). 105
• 5.4 Histogram for token duration, fast SR; n = 600 (all data points). 105
• 5.5 Histogram for token duration, slow SR; n = 576 (24 outliers removed). 105
• 5.6 Histogram for token duration ,normal SR; n = 579 (21 outliers removed). 106
• 5.7 Histogram for token duration, fast SR; n = 573 (27 outliers removed). 106
• 5.8 Box plot for token duration, separated by SR. 109
• 5.9 Representation of a logarithmic relationship between two variables; linear y-axis. 111
• 5.10 Representation of a logarithmic relationship between two variables; logarithmic y-axis. 112
• 5.11 Box plot for token duration at each SR; linear axis. 113
• 5.12 Interaction line plot for the effects of SR on MTD. 120
• 5.13 Interaction line plot for effects of SR * token * #dev on MTD. 122
• 5.14 Interaction line plot for effects of SR * token * #dev on MTD; means of < 6 data points removed. 123
• 5.15 Interaction line plot for token * #dev. 126
• 5.16 Interaction line plot for effect of token * #dev on MTD, segregated by segmental content of the 1st mora. 127
• 5.17 Interaction line plot for effect of token * #dev on MTD, segregated by segmental content of the 2nd mora. 128
• 5.18 Interaction line plot for effect of token * #dev on MTD, segregated by segmental content of the following syntactic particle. 128
• 5.19 Interaction line plot for gender. 129
• 5.20 Interaction line plot for participant * repetition (block). 130
• 5.21 Interaction line plot for repetition (block). 132

Chapter 6

• 6.1 Scattergram of token duration and voicing duration for voiced 1st mora vowels of token chichi ‘father’; 9 participants; all productions. 136
• 6.2 Scattergram of token duration and voicing duration for voiced 1st mora vowels of token chichi ‘father’’; 9 participants; no devoiced 2nd mora vowels. 137
• 6.3 Scattergram plot of vowel voicing duration vs. token duration, all SRs (total n = 3598; devoiced n = 1696; voiced n = 1902). 139
• 6.4 Scattergram plot of vowel voicing duration vs. token duration, fast SR only (total n = 1200; devoiced n = 702; voiced n = 498). 140
• 6.5 Scattergram plot of vowel voicing duration vs. token duration, normal SR only (total n = 1200; devoiced n = 562; voiced n = 638). 141
• 6.6 Scattergram plot of vowel voicing duration vs. token duration, slow SR only (total n = 1198; devoiced n = 432; voiced n = 766). 142
• 6.7 Representation of the linear relationship between voicing duration and token duration. 143
• 6.8 Idealized data distribution in a scattergram due to linear relationships of various strengths between two variables. 144
• 6.9 Relationship between token duration increases and voicing duration increases as defined by the slope of the regression line. 145
• 6.10 Regression plot of vowel voicing duration vs. token duration, voiced and devoiced vowels (total n = 3598; devoiced n = 1696; voiced n = 1902). 146
• 6.11 Regression plot of voicing duration vs. token duration, voiced vowels only (n = 1902). 147
• 6.12 Interaction line plot for the effects of token * mora on percentage of vowels devoiced. 156
• 6.13 Interaction line plot for the effects of token * mora on percentage of devoiced vowels, tokens segregated by the segmental material of the 1st mora. 158
• 6.14 Interaction line plot for the effects of token * mora on percentage of vowels devoiced, tokens segregated by following clitic. 159
• 6.15 Interaction line plot for the effects of token * mora on percentage of devoiced vowels, tokens segregated by the segmental material of the 2nd mora. 160
• 6.16 Interaction line plot for the effects of token * mora on percentage of devoiced vowels, tokens segregated by standard pitch placement. 161
• 6.17 Interaction line plot for the effects of SR * mora on percentage of devoiced vowels. 162
• 6.18 Interaction line plot for the effects of gender * block on percentage of devoiced vowels. 163
• 6.19 Interaction line plot for the effects of participant * block on percentage of devoiced vowels. 165
• 6.20 Interaction line plot for the effects of participant * block on percentage of devoiced vowels, segregated by gender. 166

Chapter 7

• 7.1 Distribution plot of voicing duration vs. SR, all data points (n = 1902). 171
• 7.2 Histogram for voicing duration, slow SR; n = 766 (all data points). 171
• 7.3 Histogram for voicing duration, normal SR; n = 638 (all data points). 172
• 7.4 Histogram for voicing duration, fast SR; n = 498 (all data points). 172
• 7.5 Interaction line plot for the effects of mora * token on vowel voicing durations. 177
• 7.6 Interaction line plot for the effects of mora * token on vowel voicing durations, tokens segregated by following clitic. 178
• 7.7 Interaction line plot for the effects of mora * token on vowel voicing durations, tokens segregated by the segmental material of the 1st mora. 179
• 7.8 Interaction line plot for the effects of mora * token on vowel voicing durations, tokens segregated by the segmental material of the 2nd mora. 180
• 7.9 Interaction line plot for the effects of mora * token on vowel voicing durations, tokens segregated by standard pitch placement. 181
• 7.10 Interaction line plot for the effects of mora * SR on vowel voicing durations. 182
• 7.11 Interaction line plot for the effects of gender * block on mean voicing durations of voiced vowels. 183
• 7.12 Interaction line plot for the effects of participant * block on voicing. 185

Chapter 2

• 2.1 Modified laryngeal classification system for Japanese. 34

Chapter 4

• 4.1 Independent variables identified in the study. 88

Chapter 5

• 5.1 Summary statistics for the token duration data, split by SR; all data points. 107
• 5.2 Summary statistics for the token duration data, split by SR; outliers removed. 108
• 5.3 Descriptive statistics of the data, before and after logarithmic transformation. 112
• 5.4 Results of ANCOVA including the factor gender. 117
• 5.5 Results of ANCOVA including the factor participant. 118
• 5.6 Results of ANCOVA including the factor gender; 3-way interaction not considered. 125
• 5.7 Results of ANCOVA including the factor gender (repeated). 125

Chapter 6

• 6.1 Regression summary for voicing duration vs. token duration. 150
• 6.2 Results of ANOVA including the variable gender. 154
• 6.3 Results of ANOVA including the variable participant. 155

Chapter 7

• 7.1 Summary statistics for the voicing duration data, split by SR; all data points. 173
• 7.2 Results of ANOVA including the variable gender. 175
• 7.3 Results of ANOVA including the variable gender. 176

Appendix

• A.1 Participant data. 212